dc.description.abstract
Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) have emerged as one of the key technologies of the 21st century and are currently revolutionizing the automotive industry. On an electrochemical level, energy storage in LIBs is accomplished by lithium insertion materials, which represent an essential class of mixed ionic and electronic conductors (MIECs). During every charge-discharge cycle, a LIB electrode material evolves across a wide range of thermodynamic states, each being defined by a specific electrode potential, Li content, and a corresponding set of electrochemical properties. Thus, an accurate understanding of the overall electrode kinetics requires knowledge of the composition-dependent electrochemical material parameters, which consist of the interfacial charge-transfer resistance, the ionic and electronic conductivity, the chemical capacitance, and the chemical diffusion coefficient. However, complete sets of these properties are rarely reported as a function of state-of-charge (SOC). Moreover, the interpretation of these properties from a defect chemical point of view is not very common. This thesis addresses these shortcomings and lays the groundwork for a better defect chemical understanding of LIB cathode materials and their associated electrochemical properties.To provide a starting point for the extraction of these material properties from electrochemical measurements, we first revisit the impedance of MIECs based on the one-dimensional transmission line model proposed by Jamnik and Maier, aiming to improve the intuitive understanding of all MIEC impedance spectra and provide a practical approach for the derivation of tailored equivalent circuits for any specific experimental situation. MIEC devices and measurement setups are classified as symmetrical (setups for the characterization of bulk properties), asymmetrical (solid-oxide fuel cell (SOFC) electrodes), and antisymmetrical (battery electrodes) with respect to the ion and electron blocking behavior of the two contacts. For certain boundary conditions, the transmission line is consistent with classical Warburg elements and the intuitively constructed Randles' circuit, but it also provides an extension of these circuits for MIECs with similar ionic and electronic conductivities. Furthermore, we demonstrate how blocking the surface exchange reaction transforms an SOFC electrode into a battery electrode, and how a finite side-reaction resistance can be included in the impedance model of a non-ideal battery.As a first application example, the impedance of sputtered Li1-δCoO2 thin films is analyzed to extract the fundamental electrochemical properties as a function of SOC. Within the accessible SOC range, the charge-transfer resistance and ionic conductivity vary by more than one order of magnitude. The chemical capacitance determined from impedance spectra agrees excellently with the differential capacity from charge/discharge curves, and, in the dilute regime, even matches the absolute values predicted by defect thermodynamics. The evolution of the chemical lithium diffusivity along the charge curve is deconvoluted into the separate contributions of ionic conductivity and chemical capacitance. Finally, we apply the principles of defect chemistry to evaluate the observed trends in terms of lithium activity and point defect concentrations. The consistency of impedance measurements, cycling data, and thermodynamic theory highlights the key role of the chemical capacitance as a powerful material descriptor and emphasizes the relevance of defect chemical concepts for all lithium insertion electrode materials.In the next step, we report a comprehensive impedance study of sputter-deposited epitaxial Li2-δMn2O4 thin films as a function of SOC for almost the entire tetrahedral-site regime (1 ≤ δ ≤ 1.9) and provide a complete set of electrochemical properties, consisting of the charge-transfer resistance, ionic conductivity, volume-specific chemical capacitance, and chemical diffusivity. The obtained properties vary by up to three orders of magnitude and provide essential insights into the point defect concentration dependences of the overall electrode potential. We introduce a defect chemical model based on simple concentration dependences of the Li chemical potential, considering the tetrahedral and octahedral lattice site restrictions defined by the spinel crystal structure. The proposed model is in excellent qualitative and quantitative agreement with the experimental data, excluding the two-phase regime around 4.15 V versus Li+/Li, and is applicable to the defect chemical analysis of all spinel-type cathode materials.Finally, we consider the complex interplay of lithium and oxygen nonstoichiometry. The level of oxygen deficiency δ in high-voltage spinels of the composition LiNi0.5Mn1.5O4-δ (LNMO) significantly influences the thermodynamic and kinetic properties of the material, ultimately affecting the cell performance of the corresponding lithium-ion batteries. This study presents a comprehensive defect chemical analysis of LNMO thin films with oxygen vacancy concentrations of 2.4% and 0.53%, focusing particularly on the oxygen vacancy regime around 4 V versus Li+/Li. A set of electrochemical properties is extracted from impedance measurements as a function of SOC for the full tetrahedral-site regime (3.8 to 4.9 V versus Li+/Li). A defect chemical model (Brouwer diagram) is derived, providing a coherent explanation for all important trends of the electrochemical properties and charge curve. Highly resolved chemical capacitance measurements allow a refining of the defect model for the oxygen vacancy regime, showing that a high level of oxygen deficiency not only impacts the amount of redox active Mn3+/4+, but also promotes the trapping of electrons in proximity to an oxygen vacancy. The resulting stabilization of Mn3+ thereby mitigates the voltage reduction in the oxygen vacancy regime.
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