Energy and macronutrient intakes of Montenegrin adults: insights from the EFSA EU Menu National Survey (2017–2022)

Abstract

Introduction: Understanding population-level dietary intakes is essential for preventing diet-related non-communicable diseases (NCDs) and informing evidence-based nutrition policies. Until recently, Montenegro lacked nationally representative data on food and nutrient intake aligned with European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) standards. This study provides the first comprehensive analysis of energy and macronutrient intake among Montenegrin adults within the EFSA EU Menu framework. Methods: A cross-sectional dietary survey was conducted between 2017 and 2022 among 1,011 adults aged 18–74 years, using two non-consecutive 24-hour recalls administered by trained interviewers. Foods were classified using the EFSA FoodEx2 system, and nutrient intakes were calculated using national and EFSA food composition databases. Energy and macronutrient intakes were compared with EFSA Dietary Reference Values (DRVs), and differences across sex and age groups were assessed using appropriate parametric and non-parametric tests, accounting for non-normal intake distributions (p < 0.05). Results: Mean daily energy intake was 2,050 ± 670 kcal, with men consuming significantly more energy than women across all age groups. Macronutrient distribution averaged 41 E% carbohydrates, 40 E% fats, and 16 E% proteins, deviating from EFSA recommendations (45–60 E% CHO; 20–35 E% FAT; 0.83 g/kg bw PROT). Grains contributed the largest share of total energy, followed by meat, dairy, and fats, while fruits and vegetables contributed a relatively small share due to their low energy density. Younger adults derived more energy from sweetened foods and beverages, and men showed greater reliance on meat and alcohol. Discussion: The Montenegrin diet is characterized by high fat and protein intake and low carbohydrate contribution, reflecting Western dietary trends observed in the region. These findings highlight the need for national dietary guidelines promoting balanced macronutrient distribution and increased consumption of plant-based foods to mitigate NCD risks and align with European nutrition and sustainability goals.